Dating pangalan ng mesopotamia

Sumer is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia, Prehistoric proto-writing dates back before BC. The earliest.
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Plants were also grown in pots or vases. The Sumerians were one of the first known beer drinking societies.

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Cereals were plentiful and were the key ingredient in their early brew. They brewed multiple kinds of beer consisting of wheat, barley, and mixed grain beers. Beer brewing was very important to the Sumerians. It was referenced in the Epic of Gilgamesh when Enkidu was introduced to the food and beer of Gilgamesh's people: He drank the beer-seven jugs! The Sumerians practiced similar irrigation techniques as those used in Egypt.


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They grew barley , chickpeas , lentils , wheat , dates , onions , garlic , lettuce , leeks and mustard. Sumerians caught many fish and hunted fowl and gazelle. Sumerian agriculture depended heavily on irrigation. The irrigation was accomplished by the use of shaduf , canals , channels , dykes , weirs , and reservoirs.

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The frequent violent floods of the Tigris , and less so, of the Euphrates , meant that canals required frequent repair and continual removal of silt , and survey markers and boundary stones needed to be continually replaced. The government required individuals to work on the canals in a corvee , although the rich were able to exempt themselves. As is known from the " Sumerian Farmer's Almanac ", after the flood season and after the Spring Equinox and the Akitu or New Year Festival, using the canals, farmers would flood their fields and then drain the water. Next they made oxen stomp the ground and kill weeds.

They then dragged the fields with pickaxes. After drying, they plowed , harrowed , and raked the ground three times, and pulverized it with a mattock , before planting seed. Unfortunately, the high evaporation rate resulted in a gradual increase in the salinity of the fields. By the Ur III period, farmers had switched from wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley as their principal crop. Sumerians harvested during the spring in three-person teams consisting of a reaper , a binder , and a sheaf handler.

The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. Sumerian structures were made of plano-convex mudbrick , not fixed with mortar or cement. Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities, which thus came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resultant hills, known as tells , are found throughout the ancient Near East. According to Archibald Sayce , the primitive pictograms of the early Sumerian i.

Mesopotamia

Uruk era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower-like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double.

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The foundation stones—or rather bricks—of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them. The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats , large layered platforms that supported temples. Sumerian cylinder seals also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those built by the Marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq until as recently as CE. The Sumerians also developed the arch , which enabled them to develop a strong type of dome.

They built this by constructing and linking several arches. Sumerian temples and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as buttresses , recesses , half columns , and clay nails. The Sumerians developed a complex system of metrology c. This advanced metrology resulted in the creation of arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period. There is also anecdotal evidence the Sumerians may have used a type of slide rule in astronomical calculations.

They were the first to find the area of a triangle and the volume of a cube. Discoveries of obsidian from far-away locations in Anatolia and lapis lazuli from Badakhshan in northeastern Afghanistan , beads from Dilmun modern Bahrain , and several seals inscribed with the Indus Valley script suggest a remarkably wide-ranging network of ancient trade centered on the Persian Gulf.


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For example, Imports to Ur came from many parts of the world. In particular, the metals of all types had to be imported. The Epic of Gilgamesh refers to trade with far lands for goods, such as wood, that were scarce in Mesopotamia. In particular, cedar from Lebanon was prized. The finding of resin in the tomb of Queen Puabi at Ur , indicates it was traded from as far away as Mozambique. The Sumerians used slaves , although they were not a major part of the economy. Slave women worked as weavers , pressers, millers , and porters. Sumerian potters decorated pots with cedar oil paints.

The potters used a bow drill to produce the fire needed for baking the pottery. Sumerian masons and jewelers knew and made use of alabaster calcite , ivory , iron , gold , silver , carnelian , and lapis lazuli.


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Large institutions kept their accounts in barley and silver , often with a fixed rate between them. The obligations, loans and prices in general were usually denominated in one of them. Many transactions involved debt, for example goods consigned to merchants by temple and beer advanced by "ale women". Commercial credit and agricultural consumer loans were the main types of loans.

The trade credit was usually extended by temples in order to finance trade expeditions and was nominated in silver. Periodically, rulers signed "clean slate" decrees that cancelled all the rural but not commercial debt and allowed bondservants to return to their homes. Customarily, rulers did it at the beginning of the first full year of their reign, but they could also be proclaimed at times of military conflict or crop failure.

Ano ang dating pangalan ng mesopotamia

According to Hudson, the purpose of these decrees was to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened the fighting force, which could happen if peasants lost the subsistence land or became bondservants due to the inability to repay the debt. The almost constant wars among the Sumerian city-states for years helped to develop the military technology and techniques of Sumer to a high level.

It shows the king of Lagash leading a Sumerian army consisting mostly of infantry. The infantry carried spears , wore copper helmets , and carried rectangular shields. The spearmen are shown arranged in what resembles the phalanx formation , which requires training and discipline; this implies that the Sumerians may have made use of professional soldiers.

The Sumerian military used carts harnessed to onagers. These early chariots functioned less effectively in combat than did later designs, and some have suggested that these chariots served primarily as transports, though the crew carried battle-axes and lances. The Sumerian chariot comprised a four or two- wheeled device manned by a crew of two and harnessed to four onagers. The cart was composed of a woven basket and the wheels had a solid three-piece design. Sumerian cities were surrounded by defensive walls. The Sumerians engaged in siege warfare between their cities, but the mudbrick walls were able to deter some foes.

Examples of Sumerian technology include: The Sumerians had three main types of boats:. Evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared in the mid 4th millennium BC, near-simultaneously in Mesopotamia, the Northern Caucasus Maykop culture and Central Europe. The wheel initially took the form of the potter's wheel.

The new concept quickly led to wheeled vehicles and mill wheels. The Sumerians' cuneiform script is the oldest or second oldest after the Egyptian hieroglyphs which has been deciphered the status of even older inscriptions such as the Jiahu symbols and Tartaria tablets is controversial. The Sumerians were among the first astronomers, mapping the stars into sets of constellations, many of which survived in the zodiac and were also recognized by the ancient Greeks.

They invented and developed arithmetic by using several different number systems including a mixed radix system with an alternating base 10 and base 6.