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hookup (v) other spellings/forms: hook-up, hook up, hooked up, hooking up To have any form of intamicy with a member of the prefered sex that you don't.
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Moreover, distinct motivations for sex compel distinct sexual risk-taking behaviors. For example, coping motives e. Greater endorsement of enhancement and intimacy motives is associated with more oral and penetrative sexual behaviors Patrick et al. Despite the array of documented reasons for hooking up, no inventory exists in the literature to assess a wide range of hookup motives. A benefit of constructing and validating a multidimensional scale that serves as a standardized instrument to assess motivations for hooking up is that it would enable researchers to compare the scores of the same motive dimensions across different samples.

Generating a psychometrically sound scale should also furnish insights about which particular dimensions of motives toward hooking up most strongly contribute to hookup approval and behaviors. Finally, identification of the dimensions of hooking up motives serves the vital objective of elucidating this theoretical concept for research focused on hooking up, with findings potentially informing the design of sexual health programs and interventions.

The Sex Motives Questionnaire uses theoretically derived dimensions of either positive reinforcement motives i. Subscales are classified further by the source of the desired outcome: Although the Sex Motives Questionnaire is theoretically appropriate, its orientation toward motives for having sex with a romantic partner e.


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Although this scale was designed to assess motives for alcohol consumption, its dimensions appear well-suited and correspond to dimensions of motives for hooking up among college students. Based on a similar theoretical framework as that of the Sex Motives Questionnaire, the DMQ—R assesses motives for alcohol consumption via four subscales: Enhancement positive and internally derived; e. Each of these four dimensions has also been separately studied and recognized in previous research assessing motives for hooking up: On the basis of the conceptual paradigm of the DMQ—R and the conceptual similarities of its dimensions to motive constructs posited in prior hooking-up research e.

The HMQ consists of five motive factors: By conducting exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on data gathered from two distinct samples of college students, we, in the current study, sought to validate the HMQ.

The present study consisted of undergraduate students from two universities—a large public university and a midsized private university— on the west coast of the United States. Students participated as part of a larger intervention study Larimer et al. Participants in the larger study reported at least one heavy episodic drinking occasion 4 drinks for women or 5 drinks for men on the same occasion in the previous month. In addition, participants in our study reported that they had hooked up at least once in the previous year.

The final sample used in the current study included participants who met the inclusion criteria and responded to all 25 items of the HMQ. For the purposes of this study, participants were split by site. Sample 1 consisted of students from the midsized private university and was used for the exploratory factor analysis. The average participant age was The racial composition of participants was Among these participants, Class standing was distributed almost equally into Sample 2 consisted of participants enrolled in the large public university and was used for the confirmatory factor analysis.

The average age was Among these participants, 6. Class standing was distributed into Participants in the current study were recruited for a larger alcohol intervention project; none of the measures in that prior project were used for this current study. The design and protocol were approved by the institutional review board of each participating university, and data used in the current study were collected prior to participant assignment to interventions. Each site randomly recruited 3, students via postal mail and e-mail to participate in a project that involved web-based surveys.

A link to the survey was embedded in e-mails sent directly to participants. To gain access to the survey and ensure confidentiality, participants entered a unique participant identification number and electronically consented to participate. From the recruited sample, 2, students Among these invited students, 1, participants They received nominal stipends for participation. Motivations for hooking up were captured with 25 items.

As mentioned, the underlying theoretical framework for developing the HMQ subscales and items was based on a comprehensive review of the pertinent literature: After careful consideration of idiographic information derived from the focus groups and qualitative survey data, we developed items to capture the range of motives that college students report for hooking up and identify which fit into the theoretical framework described earlier.

Students also cited external reasons for hooking up most commonly related to intoxication , but we determined that these reasons were not motives; rather, they constituted external circumstances, internal states, or personal qualities that could account for hooking up behavior; thus, they were not included as motive-specific items. Further, as expected, the qualitative data suggested that the social dimension be divided into sexual motives and relationship motives.

Thus we developed five items for each the five factors, creating an initial scale of 25 items see Table 1 for a list of items. Instructions provided the definition of hooking up from LaBrie et al. Hooking up is defined as something both people agree to consensual , including how far they go. Thinking of all the times you have hooked up, how often would you say that you hook up for each of the following reasons? Greater self-approval in favor of hooking was expected to be correlated with higher scores on the hooking up motives.

Higher scores represented poorer mental health on their respective dimensions. Exploratory factor analysis was undertaken on the original set of 25 items.

Development and Validation of the Hookup Motives Questionnaire (HMQ)

Common factor analysis principal axis factoring served as the estimation method, as it has the advantage of accounting for measurement error in the solution Gorsuch, As the derived factors were anticipated to be somewhat intercorrelated, an oblique rotation oblimin was performed to facilitate interpretation Abdi, ; Gorsuch, Items with poor factor loadings were deleted until an acceptable factor structure was obtained.

The adequacy of the data in satisfying assumptions for exploratory factor analysis was examined for the set of 25 items. Factorability of the data was evaluated with two indices. Several criteria helped to judge the appropriate number of factors to be retained in the solution. The eigenvalue greater than 1 rule dictates that factors with eigenvalues above this threshold should be retained Kaiser, On the basis of this criterion, the solution revealed that four factors were appropriate, but the fifth factor was very near this cutoff, with an eigenvalue of. Horn advocated parallel analysis as a superior approach for determining the minimum number of credible factors not attributed to chance.

Comparing the permutations of eigenvalues of random data with the eigenvalues of the actual data, parallel analysis results indicated the existence of five factors.

Development and Validation of the Hookup Motives Questionnaire (HMQ)

In terms of obtaining a simple structure, the five factors produced a conceptually clearer pattern of loadings than four factors Gorsuch, As findings were inconclusive with regard to the number of underlying dimensions, on the basis of the simple structure and the theoretical position regarding the number of hypothesized dimensions the five-factor structure was tentatively retained.

In the five-factor structure, a standardized factor loading criterion of. Three items produced factor loadings below this cutoff: After deleting these three items, the five-factor model was reestimated, resulting in the item solution presented in Table 2. The highest initial eigenvalues from the unrotated solution were as follows: Standardized loadings are from the pattern matrix after oblique rotation.

Motivations for Hooking Up

The largest loading for each variable is bolded. Subscale reliability coefficients, means, and correlations are presented in Table 3. Subscale means of items within each factor were computed. The subscales of Social-Sexual and Social-Relationship correlated at.


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The purpose of this next phase was to conduct confirmatory factor analyses to further evaluate the structure obtained in the exploratory factor analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis is considered a more conservative approach than exploratory factor analysis, as items are specified to load only on its hypothesized dimensions. This includes tests of discriminant validity to determine the statistical independence of the five subscales and the extent that they are related or unrelated to external measures of depression, anxiety, and stress.

Criterion-related validity was examined through subscale relationships with approval and behavior of hooking up. As some items measuring motivations for hooking up were expected to operate differently between men and women, the investigation also tested the extent of multiple-group measurement and structural invariance. Items were forced to load on their hypothesized factors, and these factors were allowed to be correlated. Several fit indices helped to judge the adequacy of the confirmatory factor analyses. The model chi-square test is sensitive to rejecting desirable models if the sample size is not small Bollen, Thus, also used to evaluate the quality of the models were additional indices.

As information concerning the number dimensions in the exploratory factor analysis was mixed, using this new sample and the original 25 items, confirmatory factor analyses pitted the four-factor model against the five-factor model. On the basis of this information, the five-factor model was deemed to better capture the underlying data and therefore was used in all analyses from this point forward. The model was then inspected to determine modifications potentially rendering an improvement in fit.

A factor loading below. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis are presented in Figure 1. All items sufficiently captured their factors, with significant factor loadings. Standardized coefficients are presented. Next, two criteria were used to determine whether discriminant validity was evidenced across the five subscales.

One recommendation is that an interfactor correlation below. This requirement was satisfied, as the highest correlation between any two factors was. Additional properties of the final item inventory were evaluated using computed subscales constructed by taking the mean of items within each factor. Results are shown in Table 4. Reliabilities of each subscale ranged from. The relationships of the HMQ subscales with external scales of depression, anxiety, and stress were examined.

As displayed in Table 5 , Social-Sexual significantly correlated with depression and anxiety; Social-Relationship correlated with anxiety; Coping correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress; and Conformity correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress. To evaluate criterion-related validity, we examined associations of the five HMQ subscales with approval and behavior of hooking up see Table 5. Except for Conformity motives, higher scores on the other four motives were significantly and positively correlated with approval of hooking up. Moreover, higher scores on each of the five motives positively correlated with frequency of hooking up behaviors.

Analyses of multiple-group invariance were conducted to determine the extent that the factor structure operated similarly for men and women. Factorial invariance was evaluated according to the sequence recommended by Byrne Constraints for these particular factor loadings were then released. In conclusion, the factor structure of men and women exhibited partial measurement invariance Byrne, This was followed by one-way ANOVAs to assess mean differences on each subscale as a function of gender.

In Table 6 , results show that men tended to score systematically higher than women on all five subscales.

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The HMQ presents researchers and clinicians with a brief multidimensional and logically sound measure for assessing five statistically distinct, yet related, motivations for hooking up. Hooking up is considered a prevalent and sometimes risky behavior in young adult populations. The identification of motives for hooking up is critical to gain a better understanding of the fundamental antecedents that compel hooking up and may help illuminate the risks that contribute to negative outcomes stemming from hooking up e. Results of two independent samples— one using exploratory factor analysis and the other using confirmatory factor analysis—supported a final item instrument involving social-sexual, social-relationship, enhancement, coping, and conformity motives.

The HMQ demonstrated desirable internal consistency and subscale discriminant validity. Moreover, results satisfied criterion-related validity by showing that HMQ subscales were significantly correlated with hookup approval and behavior. The only nonsignificant correlation was found between conformity motives and approval of hooking up. Consistent with broader research on sexual behavior Dawson et al. Given that coping- and conformity-motivated sexual behavior appears to be particularly risky, these results emphasize the need to assess and intervene with distressed students who may be hooking up to reduce negative affect or to fit in with peers.

Along these lines, it would be advantageous for researchers and those who work directly with young adults and college students around sexual health to demonstrate the extent to which HMQ subscales are associated with positive and negative consequences.